Academic English skills
These conventions involve academic English that is cautious in tone, formal, precise and concise, impartial and objective, and claims and opinions that are substantiated with evidence.
For further assistance, advice or tutoring/coaching in these skills contact Dr Bill Wrigley.
Click on the arrow beside each skill below to learn more.
Cautious in tone
Write in a cautious tone, avoiding extreme, absolute or definite English.
Academic writing requires a cautious or tentative tone when describing or reporting the strength of a claim or interpretation. Try to avoid making statements that sound definite or fixed and final, extreme, absolute or are overgeneralizations. This practice is in keeping with the empirical traditions of adopting a questioning attitude and a balanced and neutral approach.
An academically cautious tone describes degrees of certainty, likelihood or possibility.
1. Avoid using the words must, should, ought, or have to. Use might, may, could or can.
Examples:
✖ The fine weather must have been the reason for the large crowd.
✓ The fine weather was likely to have been the reason for the large crowd.
✖ More research of this issue should be undertaken.
✓ More research of this issue could be undertaken.
2. Avoid using always or every. Use often, very frequently, many or most.
Example:
✖ These variables always respond in this way.
✓ These variables often respond in this way.
3. Avoid using definitely, undoubtedly, obviously, or absolutely. Use likely, probably, seems to, appears to, or tends to.
Example:
✖ This is definitely not the case for everyone.
✓ This does not appear to be the case for most people.
Convey levels of strength
A common convention in academic writing for conveying levels of strength or frequency of an occurrence is to refer to the degree of certainty, likelihood or possibility of an occurrence:
Degree of certainty or likelihood
- It is certain that….,
- It is almost certain that…,
- It is highly likely that…
- It is likely that…,
- It is possible that….
Degree of possibility
- There is a definite possibility that…,
- There is a strong possibility that…,
- There is a good possibility that…,
- There is some possibility that…
Degree of frequency
- Few believe that…
- Some believe that…
- Many believe that…
- Most believe that…
Table 1. List of definite and final words and their corresponding cautious language equivalents.
| Definite, Final (avoid using) | Cautious, Tentative (use) |
|---|---|
| must | might, may, could, can, advisable |
| should | could, advisable |
| have to | could, likely |
| always | very frequently, mostly, many |
| every | many, most, much |
| definitely | likely, appears to |
| undoubtedly | probably, likely |
| obviously | seems to, appears to, tends to |
| absolutely | probably, likely |
| Of course… | (delete) |
| Everybody knows that…. | It is widely known / understood that… |
Table 2. Common verbs, adverbs, nouns and phrases used to convey a cautious tone.
| Verbs | Adverbs | Nouns | Common Phrases |
|---|---|---|---|
| may, might, could, would | perhaps | The probability of this occurrence is unlikely | It seems / appears that… |
| suggest | possible, possibly | It would appear that…. | |
| probable, probably | possibility | It might be suggested that …. | |
| seems to, appears to, tends to indicate | likely, unlikely | probability | |
| definitely | likelihood | It may be possible to obtain… | |
| points to | assumption | ||
| tends to be/indicates | conceivably | It could be the case that... | |
| apparently | It could be said that… | ||
| relatively | |||
| generally | The evidence suggests … | ||
| seemingly | It is generally considered that… | ||
| primarily | |||
| It is likely... | |||
| occasionally, rarely | |||
| infrequently | In some/many/most cases… | ||
| sometimes | Some believe that… | ||
| frequently | To the extent that… | ||
| predominantly | |||
| mostly, mainly, largely | With the exception of…. | ||
| often | |||
| usually | It is relatively uncommon that… | ||
| The procedure is perhaps central to … |
Formal
Avoid using conversational English, contractions, clichés, colloqualisms or slang when writing academically. Construct sentences using formal English.
1. Avoid using conversational English
Use formal written English. Informal, casually spoken English used in everyday conversation should be avoided.
Examples:
✖ The worker spent a lot of time getting a hard job done.
✓ The employee spent considerable time completing a difficult job.
✖ People who fill out surveys on this topic must be really down.
✓ People who complete surveys on this topic are often quite depressed.
2. Avoid using contractions and some abbreviations
A contraction is a shortened version of a word or word group, such as isn’t (is not), can’t (cannot), there’s (there is), and won’t (would not). Some abbreviations should also be avoided, such as eg (for example), i.e. (that is), yrs (years), and etc (ecetera, or, and so on). Etc should never be used.
Examples:
✖ There’s considerable debate about the veracity of this claim.
✓ There is considerable debate about the veracity of this claim.
✖ There’s several reasons for this, eg the current weather.
✓ There are several reasons for this, for example, the wet weather.
✖ The symptoms examined in the study were palpitations, insomnia etc.
✓ The symptoms examined in the study were palpitations, insomnia….. and…..(list all of the symptoms).
3. Avoid using clichés, colloquialisms or slang
A cliché is an overused or stereotyped expression (such as, over the hill, meaning old). A colloquialism is a phrase that is in very common use. Slang is a word(s) that is not considered standard English, such as cool: That performance was really cool.
Cliché
✖The moment of truth arrived for the teacher to begin the exam.
✓The time came for the teacher to begin the exam.
✖This assignment is a piece of cake compared to the previous one.
✓This assignment is easier than the previous one.
Informal and formal language
There are many words and phrases often used by students that, although used in conversational or informal English, are not considered formal English required for academic writing. The table below lists many of these, together with a formal English alternative.
Table 3. List of informal words and their formal equivalents.
| Informal, ‘Wordy’ Language | Formal Language |
|---|---|
| a lot | many, considerable number, numerous |
| came back | returned |
| came up with | produced, provided |
| come up with | develop |
| carried out (a study) | conducted, performed |
| chance | likelihood |
| deal with | manage, respond to |
| did, done | conducted, performed |
| extra | additional |
| get | obtain, receive |
| get rid of | eliminate, removed |
| go down, get smaller | decrease, reduce |
| go into, talk about | discuss |
| go up, get bigger | increase |
| (a) great deal of | considerable |
| hard | difficult |
| help | assistance |
| in accordance with | consistent with |
| enough of | sufficient |
| fact | evidence |
| filled out | completed |
| find out | determine ascertain, discover, learn |
| (it is) fitting | (it is) appropriate |
| looked into | investigated |
| made up of | consisted of, comprised |
| make up, | constitute, comprise |
| make it easier | facilitate |
| make sure | ensure, verify |
| not been much | few, little |
| pointed out, watched, | indicated, observed |
| pretty good | encouraging |
| prove | support |
| put forward (an idea, view, theory) | present, propose |
| right | correct, accurate |
| said | reported, indicated, stated |
| set out to do something, try to do | aim |
| set up | established |
| sort of | quite |
| tell apart/between, make a distinction | distinguish, differentiate, discern |
| went back over, looked over, | reviewed |
| went through | checked |
| worked on | conducted |
| worked out, figured out | determined |
| wrong | incorrect, inaccurate |
| whole lot of | various |
Precise and concise
Successful academic writing is economical and precise in its use of words and phrases. It is concise
1. Use precise words in your descriptions that avoid vague or overly general language:
Example:
✖ It’s was around about 1923 that he moved house to some other part of the country.
✓ It was in approximately 1923 that he moved to another region of the country.
✖ We mailed about 50 questionnaires to everyone.
✓ The questionnaire was mailed to each of the 50 participants in the study.
and exact, and avoids wordiness (verbosity), and redundant or unnecessary words.
2. Avoid wordy sentences that contain unnecessary words (such as this sentence – “contain unnecessary words” = “wordy”).
Example:
✖ The inventors came up with a better method for solving the puzzle that got rid of the need for going back over the ideas they came up with before.
✓ The inventors discovered a better method that eliminated the need to review their previous ideas.
3. Avoid using redundant words (unnecessary repetition):
| Redundant* | Correct |
|---|---|
| They were both alike | They were alike |
| six different groups | six groups |
| It has been previously found | It has been found |
| a total of 68 participants | 68 participants |
| The reason is because | The reason is that |
| very close to significance | non significant |
*Parts of this table were adapted from American Psychological Association. (2010). Publication manual of the American Psychological Association (6th ed.). Washington. DC: Author.
4. Avoid using redundant categories:
| Redundant categories* | Correct |
|---|---|
| at an early time | earlier |
| brown in colour | brown |
| economics field | economics |
| extreme in degree | extreme |
| heavy in weight | heavy |
| honest in character | honest |
| in a confused state | confused |
| large in size | large |
| modern in design | modern |
| of an uncertain condition | uncertain |
| of cheap quality | cheap |
| often times | often |
| round in shape | round |
| small in size | small |
| unusual in nature | unusual |
*Parts of this table were adapted from American Psychological Association. (2010). Publication manual of the American Psychological Association (6th ed.). Washington. DC: Author.
5. Avoid using redundant pairs:
| Redundant pairs* | Correct |
|---|---|
| basic fundamentals | fundamentals |
| both of these | both |
| combine together | combine |
| consensus of opinion | consensus |
| continue to remain | remain |
| completely unanimous | unanimous |
| each individual | individual |
| each and every | each |
| end result | result |
| established fact | fact |
| final outcome | outcome, result |
| free gift | gift |
| future plans / prospects | plans /prospects |
| important essentials | essentials |
| in close proximity to | in proximity to |
| one and / exactly the same | the same |
| past history | history |
| past experience | experience |
| past memories | memories |
| period of / in time | time |
| random chance | chance |
| reason why | reason |
| rough estimate | estimate |
| separate out | separate |
| sudden crisis | crisis |
| sufficient enough | sufficient |
| sum total | total |
| terrible tragedy | tragedy |
| true facts | facts |
| unexpected surprise | surprise |
| various differences | differences |
| whether or not | whether |
*Parts of this table were adapted from American Psychological Association. (2010). Publication manual of the American Psychological Association (6th ed.). Washington. DC: Author.
6. Avoid using verbose language – unnecessary words:
| Verbose | Concise |
|---|---|
| at the present time; at the moment | presently, currently, now |
| a great number of times | often |
| a lot of | many, several |
| along the lines of | similar to |
| a majority of | most |
| a number of | some |
| are /were able to | can / could |
| as a matter of fact | (delete) |
| as the case may be | (delete) |
| based on the fact that | because |
| basically, | (delete) |
| being used | incorporated in |
| being used more and more | being increasingly used |
| by and large | mostly, (or delete) |
| by means of | by |
| decreased number of | fewer |
| despite the fact that / in spite of the fact that | although |
| due to /in view of the fact that | because |
| during the course of | during |
| extra yields | benefits |
| for all intents and purposes | (delete) |
| for the purpose of | for |
| has been shown to be | is |
| has / had the ability to | can /could |
| in order to | to |
| in other words | thus / hence / therefore |
| in the event that | if |
| is /was able to | can / could |
| it is interesting to note that | eliminate |
| it is possible that | may |
| it may seem reasonable to suppose that | eliminate |
| last but not least | finally, in conclusion |
| longer time period | longer |
| modern day | contemporary |
| on a daily basis | daily |
| on account of the fact that | because |
| plays an important role | is important (because) |
| through the use of | through |
| with the exception of | except for |
Impartial and objective
Use impartial or neutral language that reflects an objective tone in your academic writing. This means the language is fair and accurate.
1. Avoid emotional, exaggerated or judgmental language.
Examples:
✖ The results from this study make the most wonderful contribution to the field.
✓ The results from this study provide an important contribution to the field.
✖ This treatment method will have enormous implications for the future.
✓ This treatment method is likely to have significant implications for the future.
✖ The response rate for the questionnaire was awesome.
✓ The response rate for the questionnaire was higher than expected.
2. Avoid using subjective language involving the personal pronoun.
Generally, it is advisable to limit or avoid using the personal pronouns – I, you, we, and us. This is because the personal pronoun can convey a personal, partial or subjective approach. However, some disciplines allow for the judicious use of personal pronouns in some essays, assignments and journal articles.
Example:
✖ I interviewed a total of nine students during the first semester.
✓ A total of nine students were interviewed during the first semester.
a. Avoid the use of ‘You’
It is important to avoid referring to the reader or people in general as you:
Example:
✖ You will be surprised to know from us that there are several species of this bird.
✓ It is important to know that there are several species of this bird.
✖ In public, you cannot wear what you want wherever you go.
✓ In public, people cannot wear what they want wherever they go.
✖ You will notice that the data for males has been omitted from Table 3.
✓ In Table 3, the data for males has been omitted.
3. Avoid using rhetorical questions.
It is also important to avoid the use of rhetorical questions. A rhetorical question makes a point for which a reply is not expected. Clearly, this is not appropriate for academic writing, as the focus of an academic essay is to provide a logical argument on the topic.
Example:
✖ What is the current state of affairs with the economy?
✓ The current economy shows that….
✖ How can this be addressed?
✓ This essay will address the issue by….
Substantiated
An important element of successful academic writing is the quality and range of the evidence provided to support your position or viewpoints. Providing sufficient evidence for your arguments, claims or opinions goes to the heart of academic writing because it reflects objectivity in your writing.
Every claim, argument or opinion you write needs to be substantiated (supported or justified) with credible evidence from research or other authoritative sources. You need to also explain how the evidence you present supports your viewpoint or argument.
Evidence usually involves expert or authoritative data, research results or statements from reputable or recognized sources, such as peer-reviewed journals. This means NOT using information from sources that have little or no academic credibility, such as from a popular magazine, newspaper, your lecture notes, or stating personal opinions, interpretations or anecdotes without evidence to support them (unless they are specifically sought in a specific type of writing), as these are unlikely to be considered credible.
There are various types of credible evidence and your selection of these will depend on the topic, the type of academic writing, and the qualities of the evidence that are valued by your discipline. Six of the most frequently used forms of credible evidence are described here:
Types of Credible Evidence
- Empirical studies
Research studies that empirically test hypotheses or research questions by measuring variables and collecting and analysing data are important sources of evidence. These can be either qualitative or quantitative designs, and using observational or experimental methods.
- Statistics, facts and surveys
Statistical data can be provided to support viewpoints. The sources of these need to be cited in the text.
- Theory and concepts
You can support a claim or argument by reference to a theory or concepts, and then describe how this refers to a specific example in reality.
- Authoritative opinions
An accepted form of evidence is the citation or quotation of a recognized authority or expert on the topic about whihc you are writing.
- Examples
Examples from real life, case examples, and hypothetical examples can serve as useful evidence to clarify an argument or illustrate a viewpoint.
- Quotations, testimonies, interviews
Views expressed in quotations, testimonies and interviews can be used to support your position, or emphasize a particular point. It is important to recognize that these usually come from one person and should not be overused, unless the topic calls for the presentation of this type of evidence, such as an essay or thesis that focuses on qualitative or narrative studies.
When using evidence to support your position, it is important to ensure it is relevant to the argument you are expressing and is accurate.
Standard English words to cite evidence
There are several standard English words used to cite evidence in order to substantiate arguments and claims. These words, often referred to as reporting words, describe the type of claim or idea that is cited from the researcher or author of the source you report in your writing.
These reporting words are verbs usually written in the past tense because they refer to opinions or research results that occurred in the past.
The 10 most frequently used reporting words are:
| Believed | Found |
| Suggested | Investigated |
| Evaluated | Showed |
| Persuaded | Explained |
| Agreed | Disagreed |
Examples:
1. Smith (2011) believed that an improved theoretical framework was required to explain the phenomenon more fully.
2. Previous studies have investigated the effects of exercise on resting blood pressure in children.
3. White (2009) explained the mechanism of the action of ultraviolet radiation on cells.
Methods for citing and describing the evidence
The table below contains various commonly used words and phrased to provide substantiation, including citing evidence, comparing views, giving examples of evidence, describing relationships between the evidence, and outlining alternative views.
| Methods for presenting evidence | Examples |
|---|---|
| Cite evidence for the claim | Research findings show/indicate that... |
| There is evidence to show that... | |
| Evidence of this can be found in.... | |
| It is claimed that… | |
| This indicates that... These findings show that... | |
| Jones (2010) states/claims that... | |
| According to Holmes (2012), ..... | |
| As Holmes (2012) has indicated, .... | |
| Show agreement in the literature | In support of this claim... |
| Most researchers agree that... | |
| There is general agreement that ... | |
| As indicated by,... | |
| Further to... | |
| The findings of Smith (2010) concur with this view. | |
| Give examples of evidence | For example,... For instance,.... |
| Specifically,... | |
| To illustrate..... To demonstrate... | |
| One such occurrence... | |
| In this case,...On this occasion... | |
| Describe a relationship in the evidence -cause & effect | Therefore,... Thus,... Hence,... |
| Consequently,... As a consequence of... | |
| Accordingly,... Owing to this,.... | |
| As a result of.... resulting in... | |
| For this reason... Due to this...Because of this... | |
| In response to... | |
| Compare views or results | In/by comparison,... |
| A comparison of…. | |
| than... Equally,... | |
| In the same way,... | |
| Similarly,...Likewise,...Similar to.... | |
| Whereas... | |
| Balanced against.... | |
| Use time in describing the evidence | Presently,... Immediately... Currently,... |
| After a few hours.. soon... | |
| At that time... At this point...Then.... | |
| In the meantime,.... Sometime... | |
| As soon as.... | |
| Eventually... | |
| Later... | |
| Occasionally.... | |
| Describe order or sequence of the evidence | Firstly, ... At first,... To begin with... |
| Secondly.., Subsequently,.. Finally,... | |
| Previously... Formerly... Before.. Prior to.. | |
| Then,... Next,... | |
| Following... Thereafter.... | |
| Concurrently... | |
| Simultaneously... at the same time... | |
| Later,... Afterwards,... | |
| Meanwhile,....In the meantime,.... | |
| Sometime....Eventually... | |
| Outline alternative or contrasting results, claims, propositions, or ideas | However,.... Nevertheless,... Nonetheless,... |
| While.... Yet.... but... | |
| In contrast,...On the other hand,..... | |
| In opposition to...Whereas,... | |
| In contradiction to…. | |
| On the contrary,...Contrary to these findings... On the other hand,.... | |
| Despite these findings... | |
| A different conclusion has been drawn by... | |
| An alternative explanation has been proposed by... | |
| Differing from this.... Balanced against this.... Alternatively, it was demonstrated that… | |
| Alternatively,...Conversely,...A different view is... | |
| One could also suggest... | |
| One might object here that... | |
| Although..... In spite of... Instead.... | |
| Even though/so... Still,... | |
| Despite... In spite of.. Regardless of... | |
| A disadvantage/drawback of this is that ... | |
| Offer resolution for the issues with the evidence | This view appears to be mistaken... |
| There is insufficient evidence to support this claim... | |
| Although this view is plausible and valid it is less important/less likely than.... | |
| Qualify the view, findings | Admittedly,... Despite... |
| Notwithstanding... | |
| It is true that... | |
| In a sense... | |
| Concede shortcomings in the evidence | Unfortunately, |
| It is likely that... | |
| In spite of... | |
| Consider the implications of the evidence | Taken together, these findings suggest that... |
| This seems to suggest that... | |
| It is clear from this research that... | |
| From the evidence it follows that... | |
| Several conclusions can be drawn from these findings... | |
| Serious implications can be drawn from... |